Electromagnetics example

Theoretical introduction by: Hans Petter Langtangen and Anders Logg

Implementation by: Jørgen S. Dokken

In this example, we will consider an iron cylinder with copper wires wound around the cylinder, as shown below

Through the copper wires a static current of \(J=1A\) is flowing. We would like to compute the magnetic field \(B\) in the iron cylinder, the copper wires, and the surrounding vaccum.

We start by simplifying the problem to a 2D problem. We can do this by assuming that the cylinder extends far along the z-axis and as a consequence the field is virtually independent of the z-coordinate. Next, we consder Maxwell’s equation to derive a Poisson equation for the magnetic field (or rather its potential)

\[ \nabla \cdot D = \rho, \]

\[ \nabla \cdot B = 0, \]

\[ \nabla \times E = -\frac{\partial B}{\partial t}, \]

\[ \nabla \times H = \frac{\partial D}{\partial t}+ J. \]

Here, \(D\) is the displacement field, \(B\) is the magnetic field, \(E\) is the electric field, and \(H\) is the magnetizing field. In addition to Maxwell’s equation, we need a constitutive relation between \(B\) and \(H\),

\[ B =\mu H, \]

which holds for an isotropic linear magnetic medium. Here, \(\mu\) is the magnetic permability of the material. Now, since \(B\) is solenodial (divergence free) accoording to Maxwell’s equations, we known that \(B\) must be the curl of some vector field \(A\). This field is called the magnetic vector potential. Since the problem is static and thus \(\frac{\partial D}{\partial t}=0\), it follows that

\[ J = \nabla \times H = \nabla \times(\mu^{-1} B)=\nabla \times (\mu^{-1}\nabla \times A ) = -\nabla \cdot (\mu^{-1}\nabla A). \]

In the last step, we have expanded the second derivatives and used the gauge freedom of \(A\) to simplify the equations to a simple vector-valued Poisson equation for the magnetic vector potential; if \(B=\nabla \times A\), then \(B=\nabla \times (A+\nabla \phi)\) for any scalar field \(\phi\) (the gauge function). For the current problem, we thus need to solve the following 2D Poisson problem for the \(z\)-component \(A_z\) of the magnetic vector potential

\[\begin{split} - \nabla \cdot (\mu^{-1} \nabla A_z) = J_z \qquad \text{in } \mathbb{R}^2,\\ \end{split}\]

\[ \lim_{\vert(x,y)\vert\to \infty}A_z = 0. \]

Since we cannot solve the problem on an infinite domain, we will truncate the domain using a large disk, and set \(A_z=0\) on the boundary. The current \(J_z\) is set to \(+1\)A in the interior set of the circles (copper-wire cross sections) and to \(-1\) A in the exteriror set of circles in the cross section figure. Once the magnetic field vector potential has been computed, we can compute the magnetic field \(B=B(x,y)\) by

\[ B(x,y)=\left(\frac{\partial A_z}{\partial y}, - \frac{\partial A_z}{\partial x} \right). \]

The weak formulation is easily obtained by multiplication of a test function \(v\), followed by integration by parts, where all boundary integrals vanishes due to the Dirichlet condition, we obtain \(a(A_z,v)=L(v)\) with

\[ a(A_z, v)=\int_\Omega \mu^{-1}\nabla A_z \cdot \nabla v ~\mathrm{d}x, \]

\[ L(v)=\int_\Omega J_z v~\mathrm{d} x. \]

Meshing a complex structure with subdomains

We create the domain visualized in the cross section figure above using gmsh. Note that we are using the gmsh.model.occ.fragment commands to ensure that the boundaries of the wires are resolved in the mesh.

from dolfinx import default_scalar_type
from dolfinx.fem import (dirichletbc, Expression, Function, FunctionSpace,
                         VectorFunctionSpace, locate_dofs_topological)
from dolfinx.fem.petsc import LinearProblem
from dolfinx.io import XDMFFile
from dolfinx.io.gmshio import model_to_mesh
from dolfinx.mesh import compute_midpoints, locate_entities_boundary
from dolfinx.plot import vtk_mesh

from ufl import TestFunction, TrialFunction, as_vector, dot, dx, grad, inner
from mpi4py import MPI

import gmsh
import numpy as np
import pyvista

rank = MPI.COMM_WORLD.rank

gmsh.initialize()
r = 0.1   # Radius of copper wires
R = 5     # Radius of domain
a = 1     # Radius of inner iron cylinder
b = 1.2   # Radius of outer iron cylinder
N = 8     # Number of windings
c_1 = 0.8  # Radius of inner copper wires
c_2 = 1.4  # Radius of outer copper wires
gdim = 2  # Geometric dimension of the mesh
model_rank = 0
mesh_comm = MPI.COMM_WORLD
if mesh_comm.rank == model_rank:

    # Define geometry for iron cylinder
    outer_iron = gmsh.model.occ.addCircle(0, 0, 0, b)
    inner_iron = gmsh.model.occ.addCircle(0, 0, 0, a)
    gmsh.model.occ.addCurveLoop([outer_iron], 5)
    gmsh.model.occ.addCurveLoop([inner_iron], 6)
    iron = gmsh.model.occ.addPlaneSurface([5, 6])
    gmsh.model.occ.synchronize()

    # Define geometry for background
    background = gmsh.model.occ.addDisk(0, 0, 0, R, R)
    gmsh.model.occ.synchronize()

    # Define the copper-wires inside iron cylinder
    angles_N = [i * 2 * np.pi / N for i in range(N)]
    wires_N = [(2, gmsh.model.occ.addDisk(c_1 * np.cos(v), c_1 * np.sin(v), 0, r, r)) for v in angles_N]

    # Define the copper-wires outside the iron cylinder
    angles_S = [(i + 0.5) * 2 * np.pi / N for i in range(N)]
    wires_S = [(2, gmsh.model.occ.addDisk(c_2 * np.cos(v), c_2 * np.sin(v), 0, r, r)) for v in angles_S]
    gmsh.model.occ.synchronize()
    # Resolve all boundaries of the different wires in the background domain
    all_surfaces = [(2, iron)]
    all_surfaces.extend(wires_S)
    all_surfaces.extend(wires_N)
    whole_domain = gmsh.model.occ.fragment([(2, background)], all_surfaces)
    gmsh.model.occ.synchronize()
    # Create physical markers for the different wires.
    # We use the following markers:
    # - Vacuum: 0
    # - Iron cylinder: 1
    # - Inner copper wires: $[2,3,\dots,N+1]$
    # - Outer copper wires: $[N+2,\dots, 2\cdot N+1]
    inner_tag = 2
    outer_tag = 2 + N
    background_surfaces = []
    other_surfaces = []
    for domain in whole_domain[0]:
        com = gmsh.model.occ.getCenterOfMass(domain[0], domain[1])
        mass = gmsh.model.occ.getMass(domain[0], domain[1])
        # Identify iron circle by its mass
        if np.isclose(mass, np.pi * (b**2 - a**2)):
            gmsh.model.addPhysicalGroup(domain[0], [domain[1]], tag=1)
            other_surfaces.append(domain)
        # Identify the background circle by its center of mass
        elif np.allclose(com, [0, 0, 0]):
            background_surfaces.append(domain[1])

        # Identify the inner circles by their center of mass
        elif np.isclose(np.linalg.norm(com), c_1):
            gmsh.model.addPhysicalGroup(domain[0], [domain[1]], inner_tag)
            inner_tag += 1
            other_surfaces.append(domain)
        # Identify the outer circles by their center of mass
        elif np.isclose(np.linalg.norm(com), c_2):
            gmsh.model.addPhysicalGroup(domain[0], [domain[1]], outer_tag)
            outer_tag += 1
            other_surfaces.append(domain)
    # Add marker for the vacuum
    gmsh.model.addPhysicalGroup(2, background_surfaces, tag=0)
    # Create mesh resolution that is fine around the wires and
    # iron cylinder, coarser the further away you get
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.add("Distance", 1)
    edges = gmsh.model.getBoundary(other_surfaces, oriented=False)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumbers(1, "EdgesList", [e[1] for e in edges])
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.add("Threshold", 2)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumber(2, "IField", 1)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumber(2, "LcMin", r / 3)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumber(2, "LcMax", 6 * r)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumber(2, "DistMin", 4 * r)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumber(2, "DistMax", 10 * r)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.add("Min", 5)
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setNumbers(5, "FieldsList", [2])
    gmsh.model.mesh.field.setAsBackgroundMesh(5)
    # Generate mesh
    gmsh.option.setNumber("Mesh.Algorithm", 7)
    gmsh.model.mesh.generate(gdim)
    gmsh.model.mesh.optimize("Netgen")

Info    : Meshing 1D...
Info    : [  0%] Meshing curve 1 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 10%] Meshing curve 2 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 20%] Meshing curve 3 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 20%] Meshing curve 4 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 30%] Meshing curve 5 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 30%] Meshing curve 6 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 40%] Meshing curve 7 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 40%] Meshing curve 8 (Circle)
Info    : [ 50%] Meshing curve 9 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 50%] Meshing curve 10 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 60%] Meshing curve 11 (Circle)
Info    : [ 60%] Meshing curve 12 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 70%] Meshing curve 13 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 70%] Meshing curve 14 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 80%] Meshing curve 15 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 80%] Meshing curve 16 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 90%] Meshing curve 17 (Ellipse)
Info    : [ 90%] Meshing curve 18 (Ellipse)
Info    : [100%] Meshing curve 19 (Ellipse)
Info    : Done meshing 1D (Wall 0.00816753s, CPU 0.0055s)
Info    : Meshing 2D...
Info    : [  0%] Meshing surface 1 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [  0%] BAMG succeeded 1668 vertices 2920 triangles
Info    : [ 10%] Meshing surface 3 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 10%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 20%] Meshing surface 4 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 20%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 20%] Meshing surface 5 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 20%] BAMG succeeded 50 vertices 79 triangles

Info    : [ 20%] BAMG succeeded 48 vertices 75 triangles
Info    : [ 20%] BAMG succeeded 48 vertices 75 triangles
Info    : [ 30%] Meshing surface 6 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 30%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 30%] Meshing surface 7 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 30%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 40%] Meshing surface 8 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 40%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 40%] Meshing surface 9 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 40%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 50%] Meshing surface 10 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 50%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 50%] Meshing surface 11 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 50%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 50%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles

Info    : [ 50%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 50%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] Meshing surface 12 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] Meshing surface 13 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 60%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] Meshing surface 14 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles

Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] Meshing surface 15 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 70%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 80%] Meshing surface 16 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 80%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 80%] Meshing surface 17 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 80%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles

Info    : [ 80%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 80%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 80%] BAMG succeeded 45 vertices 69 triangles
Info    : [ 90%] Meshing surface 18 (Plane, Bamg)
Info    : [ 90%] BAMG succeeded 47 vertices 73 triangles
Info    : [ 90%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 90%] BAMG succeeded 46 vertices 71 triangles
Info    : [ 90%] Meshing surface 19 (Plane, Bamg)

Info    : [ 90%] BAMG succeeded 5927 vertices 11438 triangles

Info    : [ 90%] BAMG succeeded 5983 vertices 11550 triangles
Info    : [100%] Meshing surface 20 (Plane, Bamg)

Info    : [100%] BAMG succeeded 3279 vertices 6231 triangles
Info    : [100%] BAMG succeeded 3196 vertices 6065 triangles

Info    : [100%] BAMG succeeded 3187 vertices 6047 triangles
Info    : Done meshing 2D (Wall 1.90326s, CPU 1.43378s)
Info    : 10850 nodes 22437 elements
Info    : Optimizing mesh (Netgen)...
Info    : Done optimizing mesh (Wall 1.743e-06s, CPU 4e-06s)

As in the Navier-Stokes tutorial we load the mesh directly into DOLFINx, without writing it to file.

mesh, ct, _ = model_to_mesh(gmsh.model, mesh_comm, model_rank, gdim=2)
gmsh.finalize()

To inspect the mesh, we use Paraview, and obtain the following mesh

with XDMFFile(MPI.COMM_WORLD, "mt.xdmf", "w") as xdmf:
    xdmf.write_mesh(mesh)
    xdmf.write_meshtags(ct, mesh.geometry)

We can also visualize the subdommains using pyvista

pyvista.start_xvfb()
plotter = pyvista.Plotter()
grid = pyvista.UnstructuredGrid(*vtk_mesh(mesh, mesh.topology.dim))
num_local_cells = mesh.topology.index_map(mesh.topology.dim).size_local
grid.cell_data["Marker"] = ct.values[ct.indices < num_local_cells]
grid.set_active_scalars("Marker")
actor = plotter.add_mesh(grid, show_edges=True)
plotter.view_xy()
if not pyvista.OFF_SCREEN:
    plotter.show()
else:
    cell_tag_fig = plotter.screenshot("cell_tags.png")

Next, we define the discontinous functions for the permability \(\mu\) and current \(J_z\) using the MeshTags as in Defining material parameters through subdomains

Q = FunctionSpace(mesh, ("DG", 0))
material_tags = np.unique(ct.values)
mu = Function(Q)
J = Function(Q)
# As we only set some values in J, initialize all as 0
J.x.array[:] = 0
for tag in material_tags:
    cells = ct.find(tag)
    # Set values for mu
    if tag == 0:
        mu_ = 4 * np.pi * 1e-7  # Vacuum
    elif tag == 1:
        mu_ = 1e-5  # Iron (This should really be 6.3e-3)
    else:
        mu_ = 1.26e-6  # Copper
    mu.x.array[cells] = np.full_like(cells, mu_, dtype=default_scalar_type)
    if tag in range(2, 2 + N):
        J.x.array[cells] = np.full_like(cells, 1, dtype=default_scalar_type)
    elif tag in range(2 + N, 2 * N + 2):
        J.x.array[cells] = np.full_like(cells, -1, dtype=default_scalar_type)

In the code above, we have used a somewhat less extreme value for the magnetic permability of iron. This is to make the solution a little more interesting. It would otherwise be completely dominated by the field in the iron cylinder.

We can now define the weak problem

V = FunctionSpace(mesh, ("Lagrange", 1))
tdim = mesh.topology.dim
facets = locate_entities_boundary(mesh, tdim - 1, lambda x: np.full(x.shape[1], True))
dofs = locate_dofs_topological(V, tdim - 1, facets)
bc = dirichletbc(default_scalar_type(0), dofs, V)

u = TrialFunction(V)
v = TestFunction(V)
a = (1 / mu) * dot(grad(u), grad(v)) * dx
L = J * v * dx

We are now ready to solve the linear problem

A_z = Function(V)
problem = LinearProblem(a, L, u=A_z, bcs=[bc])
problem.solve()

Coefficient(FunctionSpace(Mesh(blocked element (Basix element (P, triangle, 1, equispaced, unset, False), (2,)), 0), Basix element (P, triangle, 1, gll_warped, unset, False)), 2)

As we have computed the magnetic potential, we can now compute the magnetic field, by setting B=curl(A_z). Note that as we have chosen a function space of first order piecewise linear function to describe our potential, the curl of a function in this space is a discontinous zeroth order function (a function of cell-wise constants). We use dolfinx.fem.Expression to interpolate the curl into W.

W = VectorFunctionSpace(mesh, ("DG", 0))
B = Function(W)
B_expr = Expression(as_vector((A_z.dx(1), -A_z.dx(0))), W.element.interpolation_points())
B.interpolate(B_expr)

WARNING:py.warnings:/tmp/ipykernel_2322/3545201975.py:1: DeprecationWarning: This method is deprecated. Use FunctionSpace with an element shape argument instead
  W = VectorFunctionSpace(mesh, ("DG", 0))

Note that we used ufl.as_vector to interpret the Python-tuple (A_z.dx(1), -A_z.dx(0)) as a vector in the unified form language (UFL).

We now plot the magnetic potential \(A_z\) and the magnetic field \(B\). We start by creating a new plotter

plotter = pyvista.Plotter()

Az_grid = pyvista.UnstructuredGrid(*vtk_mesh(V))
Az_grid.point_data["A_z"] = A_z.x.array
Az_grid.set_active_scalars("A_z")
warp = Az_grid.warp_by_scalar("A_z", factor=1e7)
actor = plotter.add_mesh(warp, show_edges=True)
if not pyvista.OFF_SCREEN:
    plotter.show()
else:
    Az_fig = plotter.screenshot("Az.png")

Visualizing the magnetic field

As the magnetic field is a piecewise constant vector field, we need create a custom plotting function. We start by computing the midpoints of each cell, which is where we would like to visualize the cell-wise constant vector. Next, we take the data from the function B, and shape it to become a 3D vector. We connect the vector field with the midpoint by using pyvista.PolyData.

plotter = pyvista.Plotter()
plotter.set_position([0, 0, 5])

# We include ghosts cells as we access all degrees of freedom (including ghosts) on each process
top_imap = mesh.topology.index_map(mesh.topology.dim)
num_cells = top_imap.size_local + top_imap.num_ghosts
midpoints = compute_midpoints(mesh, mesh.topology.dim, range(num_cells))

num_dofs = W.dofmap.index_map.size_local + W.dofmap.index_map.num_ghosts
assert (num_cells == num_dofs)
values = np.zeros((num_dofs, 3), dtype=np.float64)
values[:, :mesh.geometry.dim] = B.x.array.real.reshape(num_dofs, W.dofmap.index_map_bs)
cloud = pyvista.PolyData(midpoints)
cloud["B"] = values
glyphs = cloud.glyph("B", factor=2e6)
actor = plotter.add_mesh(grid, style="wireframe", color="k")
actor2 = plotter.add_mesh(glyphs)

if not pyvista.OFF_SCREEN:
    plotter.show()
else:
    B_fig = plotter.screenshot("B.png")